As researchers and policymakers increasingly emphasize the need for expanding S&E capabilities in the United States, demographic groups with lower rates of S&E participation represent an underutilized source of human capital for S&E work. The lower participation signals a lack of diversity in the workplace, negatively impacting productivity and innovation (see Hewlett, Marshall, and Sherbin 2013 and Ellison and Mullin 2014 for discussions on the impact of diversity on workplace productivity and innovation).

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Historically, in the United States, S&E fields have had particularly low representation of women and members of several racial and ethnic minority groups (i.e., blacks, Hispanics, American Indians or Alaska Natives), both relative to the concentrations of these groups in other occupational or degree areas and relative to their overall representation in the general population. More recently, however, women and racial and ethnic minorities increasingly have been choosing a wider range of degrees and occupations. This section presents data on S&E participation among women and among racial and ethnic minorities.

It also presents data on earnings differentials by sex and by race and ethnicity. Women in the S&E Workforce. Historically, men have outnumbered women by wide margins in both S&E employment and S&E training. Although the number of women in S&E occupations or with S&E degrees has doubled over the past two decades, the disparity has narrowed only modestly. This imbalance is still particularly pronounced in S&E occupations.

In 2015, women constituted only 28% of workers in these occupations, although they accounted for half of the college-educated workforce overall. Among S&E degree holders, the disparity was smaller but nonetheless significant, with women representing 40% of employed individuals with a highest degree in S&E.

Although women represented only 28% of individuals in S&E occupations in 2015, women’s participation varies widely across S&E occupational fields (; ). The percentage of female S&E workers continues to be lowest in engineering, where women constituted 15% of the workforce in 2015. Among engineering occupations with large numbers of workers, women accounted for only 9% of the workforce of mechanical engineers and about 10% to 13% of the workforce of electrical and computer hardware engineers and of aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical engineers. However, among civil engineers, women make up about one-fifth of the workers.Other disproportionately male S&E occupations include physical scientists (28% women) and computer and mathematical scientists (26% women). Within computer and mathematical sciences occupations, the largest component, computer and information scientists, has a smaller proportion of women (24%) compared with the mathematical scientists component, which is closer to parity (43% women).In 2015, sex parity in S&E occupations was close among life scientists (48% women). The largest component of life sciences, biological and medical scientists, had reached gender parity (53% women). The field of social sciences was majority female (60%).

Occupations within social sciences, however, varied widely: women accounted for only 38% of economists but for 73% of psychologists. Psychologists, estimated at about 213,000 total workers , are a large S&E occupation with substantially more women than men.In contrast to jobs in S&E occupations, a majority of jobs in S&E-related occupations (58%) are held by women. The largest component, health-related occupations, has a large share of women (70%) whose jobs are primarily as nurse practitioners, pharmacists, registered nurses, dietitians, therapists, physician assistants, and health technologists and technicians; women represented the majority of workers in these particular health occupations.

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In contrast, among health occupations such as diagnosing and treating practitioners, women accounted for a much smaller proportion (42%).Since the early 1990s, the number of women working in each broad S&E occupational category has risen significantly. The rate of growth has been strong among life scientists, computer and mathematical scientists, and social scientists. These three broad S&E fields together employed 81% of women in S&E occupations in 2015, compared with 63% of men in S&E occupations.

Between 1993 and 2015, the number of women nearly tripled among life scientists (an increase of 175%) and more than doubled among social scientists (an increase of 112%). The number of men also grew, but the rate of growth for women was greater than that for men, resulting in an increase in the proportion of female life scientists and female social scientists. During the same period, the number of women in computer and mathematical sciences occupations also nearly tripled (an increase of 173%). However, this new, rapidly growing and changing field attracted relatively more men than women (male participation grew 239%). The result has been an overall decline in the proportion of women, from 31% to 26%. These trends make the gender disparity among computer and mathematical scientists second only to the gender disparity among engineers.

However, the declining proportion of women in computer and mathematical sciences occupations does not extend to doctorate-level workers: Among those with a doctorate, the proportion of women increased, from 16% in 1993 to 26% in 2015.During the past two decades, the proportion of women also increased among workers in engineering (from 9% to 15%) and in physical sciences (from 21% to 28%). In these two occupational categories, this increase was led by an expansion of women’s numbers in the workforce (by 108% in engineering and 53% in physical sciences), while men’s numbers barely changed between 1993 and 2015.Women among S&E Highest Degree Holders. Baby doll me sone ki video download. The sex disparity among employed S&E highest degree holders is less than the disparity among those in S&E occupations. In 2015, among individuals with a highest degree in an S&E field, women constituted 40% of those who were employed, up from 30% in 1993. The pattern of variation in the proportion of men and women among degree fields echoes the pattern of variation among occupations associated with those fields.

In 2015, 57% of S&E highest degree holders in social sciences fields were women, as were 51% of those with a highest degree in the biological and related sciences. Men outnumbered women among computer and mathematical sciences highest degree holders (28% women) and among physical sciences highest degree holders (34% women). Disparities, however, were greatest among those with a highest degree in engineering (15% women).In all broad S&E fields except computer and mathematical sciences, the proportion of women in the workforce with associated highest degrees has been increasing since 1993. In computer and mathematical sciences, this proportion has declined as the number of women with a highest degree in the field has risen, but women’s numbers have increased less than those of men in this new and rapidly growing field.Sex differences are not limited to the field of degree but also extend to the level of S&E degree. Overall, men outnumber women among S&E highest degree holders at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degree levels.

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The sex disparity is more severe among S&E doctorate holders than among S&E bachelor’s or master’s degree holders. For example, in 2015, women accounted for 41% and 40% of those whose highest degree in S&E was at the bachelor’s or master’s degree level, respectively, but for 31% of those whose highest degree in S&E was at the doctoral level. Engineering was an exception: in this field, women represented similar proportions of highest degree holders at the bachelor’s (15%) and doctorate degree levels (13%).

However, for S&E fields overall at all three degree levels, the proportion of women has risen in the past two decades. Working men and women with S&E highest degrees also differ in the extent to which they are employed in the same field as their S&E highest degree.

This disparity is largely the result of women having a high concentration in the two degree areas—social sciences and life sciences—where degree holders most often work in an occupation outside of S&E. In 2015, these two broad fields accounted for nearly three-fourths (74%) of all employed women with S&E highest degrees, compared with 40% of all employed men with S&E highest degrees.Across all S&E degree areas, 18% of women with an S&E highest degree are employed in the S&E field in which they earned their highest degree, compared with 33% of men. However, the pattern varies by degree fields. Among life sciences and engineering degree holders, similar proportions of men and women are employed in the broad S&E field in which they earned their degree. Computer and mathematical sciences fields represent an exception in which a larger proportion of men (59%) than women (43%) work in an occupation that matches their broad degree field and a larger proportion of women (37%) than men (25%) work in non-S&E occupations. The majority of social sciences degree holders work in non-S&E occupations, and this pattern is observed among both male (78%) and female (81%) degree holders.Men and women with a highest degree in an S&E field also differ in their labor force nonparticipation rates.

Compared with men, women are more likely to be out of the labor force (22% versus 16% for men). The difference in nonparticipation was particularly pronounced between the ages of 30 and 65. In 2015, 19% of the women in this age group with an S&E highest degree were out of the labor force, compared with 8% of the men. Many women in this group identified family reasons as an important factor: 44% of women reported that family was a factor for their labor force nonparticipation, compared with 12% of men. Within this age range, women were also much more likely than men to report that they did not need to work or did not want to work (29% of women versus 17% of men). Men, on the other hand, were much more likely than women to cite retirement as a reason for not working (24% of women versus 50% of men).

A question I have gotten a lot lately has to do with the differences and similarities between Computer Science and Computer Engineering. At the risk of over-simplifying the differences, I have written this guide to explain how Computer Science and Computer Engineering are alike and how they differ.What Is Computer Engineering?Computer Engineering is the marriage of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering. It focuses on computing in all forms, from microprocessors to embedded computing devices to laptop and desktop systems to supercomputers. As such, it concerns the electrical engineering considerations of how microprocessors function, are designed, and are optimized; how data is communicated among electronic components; how integrated systems of electronic components are designed and how they operate to process instructions expressed in software; and how software is written, compiled, and optimized for specific hardware platforms. Therefore, computer engineers are electrical engineers who specialize in software design, hardware design, or systems design that integrates both.What is Computer Science?Computer Science is the study of how data and instructions are processed, stored, communicated by computing devices. I advise all college students or recent college grads to get into the tech sector, in spite of having a career in real estate and being passionate about all things related to real estate.In today’s market, the tech sector presents millennials with better entry level job prospects and high starting salaries, but, most important, being in tech provides young people with many more opportunities to be an entrepreneur or work for a startup and therefore benefit financially from rapid growth of the company you own or work for.The only barrier to entry to building wealth in real estate is money. Real estate is not rocket science, it simply takes money to buy property and bare minimum common sense to manage it.

But, no one will lend to you or invest in your deals unless your interests are aligned with the interests of your capital sources which simply means having a significant amount of one’s own capital invested and at risk as well. Also, working for a real estate company probably pays better when compared to average incomes in a given region, but its very rarely the case that the owner of that company is going to compensate you with a percentage of ownership of a property that they purchased with their money.So, all career paths being equal, I would advise that you become a software developer and make a lot of money that one can than you to purchase property and than start your second career as a real estate investor or developer.